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Potting and Growing Orchids Most vandaceous orchids, a few Phaleanopsis, and Dendrobiums can be grown easily in wooden slatted baskets, without any compost at all, this method requires frequent watering. ​ Cattleya and Cymbidiums do well in a mix of bark chippings, perlite, and charcoal to keep the mixture sweet. ​ Oncidiums , Dendrobiums , Odontoglossums , and Catlias will also be happy in this mixture. Consider the thickness of the chosen orchid roots when deciding to use large, medium, or small bark chippings. ​ Paphiopedilums and Phragmipediums prefer a mixture of Rockwool, bark foam, sphagnum moss, and perlite. ​ Vanda’s and many other species can be placed in a wooden open basket and allow their roots to grow openly in the air – this method requires constant attention to watering and spraying for humidity. ​ Rainwater is the best option; otherwise, endeavour to use water produced by reverse osmosis systems unless you are extremely sure about the quality of your local water supply. Spring and summer ​ I spray my Vanda’s on a daily basis and in the hot summer months (yes I know it’s the UK, but I live in Cornwall), remember these roots are airborne. ​ My potted orchids are plunged in a bucket of water for at least 30 minutes once a week – if the weather is cooler every two weeks will be fine. ​ The pseudobulbs post-winter will be wrinkled and as spring approaches and you start watering the orchids on a more regular basis they will fill out. Start feeding in the new-year and continue every couple of months. La maggior parte delle orchidee vandacee, alcune Faleanopsis e Dendrobiums possono essere coltivate facilmente in cesti a doghe di legno, senza alcun compost, questo metodo richiede frequenti annaffiature. Cattleya e Cymbidium si comportano bene in un mix di scaglie di corteccia, perlite e carbone per mantenere la miscela dolce. Anche Oncidium, Dendrobiums, Odontoglossum e Catasetums saranno felici in questa miscela. Considera lo spessore delle radici dell'orchidea scelte quando decidi di utilizzare trucioli di corteccia grandi, medi o piccoli. Paphiopedilums e Phragmipediums preferiscono una miscela di lana di roccia, schiuma di corteccia, muschio di sfagno e perlite. Vanda e molte altre specie possono essere collocate in un cesto di legno aperto e consentire alle loro radici di crescere apertamente nell'aria: questo metodo richiede un'attenzione costante all'irrigazione e alla spruzzatura per l'umidità. L'acqua piovana è l'opzione migliore; in caso contrario, cercare di utilizzare l'acqua prodotta dai sistemi di osmosi inversa a meno che non siate estremamente sicuri della qualità della vostra fornitura d'acqua locale. Primavera e estate Spruzzo le mie Vanda ogni giorno e nei caldi mesi estivi (sì, lo so che è il Regno Unito, ma vivo in Cornovaglia), ricorda che queste radici sono nell'aria. Le mie orchidee in vaso vengono immerse in un secchio d'acqua per almeno 30 minuti una volta alla settimana - se il tempo è più fresco ogni due settimane andrà bene. Gli pseudobulbi dopo l'inverno saranno rugosi e con l'avvicinarsi della primavera e inizi ad annaffiare le orchidee in modo più regolare, si riempiranno. Inizia a nutrirti nel nuovo anno e continua ogni due mesi. Dall'autunno all'inverno I Vanda vengono annaffiati quando le radici appaiono bianche; quando annaffi, cambieranno colore in verde chiaro: annaffia a giorni alterni, ma spruzza ogni giorno. Le piante in vaso annaffiano con parsimonia, innaffio le mie ogni paio di mesi in inverno poiché gli pseudobulbi mantengono l'orchidea a posto. MAI sopra l'acqua: assicurati che le radici siano asciutte, non la corteccia o il terreno.

Landscape Photography Choosing lenses for landscape photography is the same as having numerous paintbrushes for a painter. Lenses allow photographers to transform how a location or subject is portrayed. Depending on the lens you can have, wide-angle views, tight close-ups, the capacity to isolate subjects, and the option to keep everything in a scene in or out of focus. Particularly regarding landscape photography, lenses are one of the few means with which you can really impart personal vision into an image. Apart from lens choice affecting how you portray a setting in nature, landscape photographers also should be concerned with the practicality of such lenses they choose to work with. Remember, less is more, carrying a large selection of lenses for landscape photography is counterproductive and apart from the weight factors having too many lenses can waste time and confuse people. I carry four: ​ Prime 25mm f1.7 lens Zoom 12-60mm f3.5-5.6 Prime 45mm f2.8 Zoom 45-200 f4.0-5.6 (rarely used, mainly to focus on a topic when I cannot get close enough) ​ Zoom lenses are great for difficult topics, like a tree in a lake when you cannot get close enough, but prime lenses make you move about the landscape to compose a subject. Prime lenses make you think more, move in, move out, or perhaps change an angle. Focal length When considering a lens for landscape photography, the most common advice often suggests buying a wide-angle lens. Wide-angle lenses are suitable for landscape photography because of their extensive field of view and far-seeing depth of field, both desirable attributes for landscape photography. Wide-angle lenses allow you to fit an entire mountain in the background, or lake in the foreground of the frame, they can also be used to show a great deal of land, sea, sky, or forest. The extra depth of field they provide helps to ensure consistent sharp focus from foreground to background, which can be beneficial when photographing large expanses. Considering wide-angle lenses are the alleged standard for landscape applications, this must not deter a photographer from considering a normal (50mm, similar to human depth-of-field) or telephoto focal length for photographing landscapes. Occasionally, using a telephoto lens can provide a little extra reach for visual compression, thereby, creating interest in an image. Zoom or prime? The debate between zoom and prime lenses will continue, and the discussion is particularly ironic in the sphere of landscape photography. The merit of zoom is the ability to zoom into a landscape or topic when restricted to a specific location. Conversely, zooms can increase complacency or laziness when photographing an area, whereas prime lenses will force a motivated photographer to hike more, move about the area, searching for a more rewarding viewpoint to photograph the landscape. ​ The image-quality differences between zoom and prime lenses are debatable, there are many high-quality zooms (at a cost), and there are high-quality prime lenses. Many wider focal length lenses are available in zoom format, like my zoom 12-60mm f3.5-5.6. It gives a little leeway in the composition, but it does not mean I will not walk about first to find the optimal spot for composition. It just helps to emphasize the tree in the lake, or a boulder with the evening glow of a sunset, rather than having it off in the distance. Of course, you will need a sturdy tripod, perhaps filters, or reflectors, so, their weight should be considered. ​ I use a Bergan that carries two camera bodies, four lenses, an external monitor, filters, spare batteries, a large steady tripod, and an extra-long quick-release rail plate with spirit levels. Deciding between zoom or prime lenses depends on your own needs, such as the distance or access to walk around a subject, how much weight, how many lenses to be carried, and personal preference for focal length. Links: Long exposure landscape photography

Growing Orchids La crescita delle orchidee dipende con successo dal tipo di clima originario. Riprodurre le condizioni in cui la pianta viene utilizzata allo stato naturale è fondamentale per garantirne il successo. Tuttavia, gli ibridi sono più adattabili dei loro genitori e tollereranno condizioni che differiscono dai loro genitori. Le orchidee si adattano a una delle tre zone o fasce di temperatura, rispetto a dove crescono, ricorda che mentre un'orchidea può provenire da un paese caldo, può benissimo crescere ad alta quota e necessita di una temperatura inferiore a quella che normalmente si assocerebbe a quella parte del mondo. Zone di temperatura Le zone vengono definite fredde, intermedie e calde. Alcune indicazioni sulla zona di temperatura di un'orchidea possono essere raccolte dalle foglie - le piante fresche in crescita hanno foglie sottili - le orchidee più calde hanno foglie carnose e spesse - ovviamente ci sono delle eccezioni a questa regola, quindi fai attenzione. Fornire un clima caldo e freddo non è sufficiente, bisogna considerare anche la luce solare che cade sulla pianta. Generalmente la maggior parte delle orchidee ha bisogno di ombra dalla luce solare diretta e di una buona circolazione dell'aria, proprio come qualsiasi altra forma di vita. Troppa luce scotta le foglie in un giallo o rosso scuro, non abbastanza luce si traduce in fogliame verde scuro e senza fiori. Almeno il 60% di ombreggiatura sarà richiesto in primavera e in estate e possibilmente anche fino all'autunno se il tempo è sereno e caldo.

Types of Paint Acrilico I colori acrilici sono i tipi di vernice più comuni utilizzati su kit di modelli e diorami. La vernice acrilica è facile da maneggiare poiché è a base d'acqua, il che significa che può essere diluita e pulita con acqua. Tuttavia, l'uso di diluenti acrilici o miglioratori di flusso per aerografo dà i migliori risultati. Le vernici acriliche sono vulnerabili a graffi o segni, quindi è importante ricoprire i kit modello con una vernice per proteggerli. A seconda della temperatura, la vernice acrilica si asciuga in circa 20 minuti e polimerizza entro 24 ore. Per l'aerografia, i diluenti a base di alcool si asciugano più velocemente dell'acqua. Vantaggi Gli acrilici a base d'acqua tendono ad asciugarsi rapidamente, hanno un odore trascurabile e possono essere facilmente miscelati con acqua o diluente. L'acqua può essere utilizzata anche per pulire i pennelli e per rimuovere uno strato di finitura per creare effetti di scheggiatura. A causa del tempo di asciugatura rapida, questo consente di applicare molte più mani di vernice durante una sessione di modellazione, aumentando così la costruzione di aree più complesse, come abitacoli e figure. Molti produttori ora producono un'ampia varietà di gamme di colori per vernici progettate per replicare le vernici della vita reale utilizzate da molti paesi nel corso della storia. Ciò semplifica la produzione di una gamma di modelli con schemi di verniciatura e finiture accurati. Al giorno d'oggi, molti produttori producono vernici acriliche adatte per aerografi, come Vallejo Model Air, MIG AMMO e AK Interactive. La vernice acrilica aerografata attrae molti modellisti poiché queste vernici sono relativamente sicure da usare all'interno e hanno poco odore. Dichiarazione di non responsabilità: quando si aerografa la vernice, è altamente consigliabile utilizzare una cabina di verniciatura e una maschera facciale / respiratore per proteggersi dalla nuvola di spruzzi generata. Svantaggi Con i loro tempi di asciugatura più rapidi, gli acrilici necessitano di una cura extra per evitare segni di pennello sul modello. Ciò può essere ottenuto applicando più strati sottili o utilizzando diluenti livellanti, ritardanti di essiccazione o miglioratori di flusso che possono essere utilizzati anche quando si aerano acrilici, la vernice acrilica tende ad asciugarsi nell'aerografo, nella punta o nell'aria durante il suo viaggio al modello. La temperatura ambiente può anche influenzare gli aspetti di essiccazione. La finitura finale è chiamata da molti top-coat o vernice. Aiuterà a proteggere la vernice dai danni, poiché alcuni kit modello sono progettati per il wargaming da tavolo che è soggetto a grandi quantità di manipolazione e uso ripetuto. Alcune marche di vernice acrilica possono essere a base di alcol che danno un odore dolce. Ciò può causare problemi durante la spazzolatura della pittura perché la seconda o la terza mano possono interferire con gli strati di vernice precedenti. Lacca Le vernici laccate sono le meno usate a causa della loro difficoltà e rischio di utilizzo. Le vernici laccate sono le più dure dei tre tipi principali e si asciugano più velocemente. Una volta asciutte, le vernici laccate sono estremamente difficili da rimuovere senza danneggiare anche la plastica. Dei tre sono anche i più tossici, quindi gli utenti dovrebbero trovarsi in un'area ben ventilata, utilizzando una cabina di verniciatura a prova di esplosione dotata di uno speciale sistema di ventilazione e indossare un respiratore, protezione per gli occhi e guanti. La vernice laccata richiede un diverso tipo di diluente per vernici, opportunamente denominato diluente per vernici. Esempi di vernice laccata sono MrColor e MRP (MrPaint). Smalto Le vernici a smalto di solito si asciugano fino a ottenere una finitura dura e lucida, possono essere necessarie circa 2-3 ore per asciugare, ma ha un tempo di polimerizzazione di 24-48 ore. Per questo motivo, la vernice smaltata si asciuga più duramente, quindi è più resistente ai graffi. Le vernici a smalto sono più tossiche delle vernici acriliche ma non sono così dannose come le vernici a vernice. Viene utilizzato per la pittura a mano in cui l'asciugatura più lenta consente più tempo per la vernice di autolivellarsi e nascondere le pennellate. Le vernici a smalto sono consigliate anche per i lavaggi dei pannelli. Esempi di vernici a smalto sono Tamiya Enamel, AK Interactive e MIG AMMO.

Wireless Network System Wireless LANs WLAN technologies tend to follow one of the three Wi-Fi communication standards and the advantages of wireless networking depend on the standard employed: ​ 802.11b - was the first standard to be used in WLANs. ​ 802.11a - the standard is faster but was more expensive than the 802.11b, because of this it was used in business networks, but it is now widely used in the public sector. ​ The 802.11g, endeavored to combine the best of both 802.11a and 802.11b. ​ The latest in Wi-Fi technology is the 802.11ac. 802.11ac connectivity, makes previous standards look like snails and makes the aggravation from slow connection speeds and load times a thing of the past. ​ The latest in Wi-Fi technology is the 802.11ad. 802.11ad connectivity, makes previous standards look like snails and makes the aggravation from slow connection speeds and load times a thing of the past. ​ The 802.11ad pushes routers, computers, servers, and printers in your home network into the next level. Because of this, an entire family can use an incredible amount of data without impacting anyone else on the network. ​ List of standards: ​ 802.11-1997 (802.11 legacy) 802.11a 802.11b 802.11g 802.11-2007 802.11n 802.11-2012 802.11ac 802.11ad ​ Installation Wi-Fi networks can be configured in two different ways: The Ad hoc approach allows wireless devices to communicate in a peer-to-peer manner. The infrastructure method allows wireless devices to communicate with a central connection that in turn communicates with wired connections on that LAN. ​ Most LANs require an infrastructure method to access the Internet, a printer, or other wired items, whereas Ad hoc mode only supports basic file sharing between the wireless devices. Both Wi-Fi approaches require a wireless network adapter/s, sometimes called WLAN cards. Infrastructure mode WLANs also need a central device called the access point. ​ The access point must be installed in a location where wireless signals can reach it with minimal interference. Although Wi-Fi signals typically reach 100 feet (30 m) or more depending on your router, obstructions like walls can greatly reduce their range, especially in an old Victorian house like mine where the walls are three feet thick. ​ Cost Most routers are wireless compatible so cost somewhat less than wired Ethernet products and most internet providers provide the router, filter, and a CAT 45 cable as part of the service. These days costs are minimal for a wireless network. ​ Reliability Wireless LANs suffer more reliability problems than wired LANs, nevertheless, perhaps not enough to be a significant concern. Older 802.11b and 802.11g wireless signals were subject to interference from home appliances including: ​ Microwave ovens Cordless telephones Electronic garage doors Fridges ​ But with the newer standards, this has all but disappeared. I will discuss setting up a wireless network later, along with port-forwarding so that you can login to your server, computer, or printer when away from home. Port-forwarding can be a challenge, so I will go through it in detail. ​ Performance These days the performance of Wireless LANs is great compared with the older 802.11b, 802.11a, and 802.11g WLANs. But Wireless systems are not as fast as their wired counterparts. Additionally, Wi-Fi performance is distance sensitive, meaning that maximum performance will degrade on a computer farther away from the access point and the more wireless devices used the WLAN performance degrades more. ​ Nowadays, the Wireless option is more than adequate for a home Internet connection for sharing files, printing, gaming, and media downloads and connecting additional devices like the iPhone and iPad. ​ Security Wireless LANs are less secure than wired LANs because wireless communication signals travel through the air and can be intercepted. ​ Many people have been through the courts for hacking into on to un-secure Wireless networks while out in their cars or sitting on a park bench. Known as war-driving it involves traveling through a residential area with their Wi-Fi equipment scanning the airwaves for unprotected WLANs. So, beware! ​ I cannot emphasize enough to set your Wireless network up securely, using the firewall and strong passwords. Using the Privacy (WEP) encryption standard WLANs improves security greatly, but not as wired networks. However, no computer network is completely secure, and you should ensure: Home is Internet firewall is properly configured. ​ Household is acquainted with the danger of Internet ‘spoof emails’ and how to recognise them. Household is aware of ‘spyware’ and how to avoid it. Use anti-virus software and keep it updated. ​ To help protect your computer from Intrusion, Trojans, and Viruses you will need antivirus and firewall software installed on your computer. I use ESET and Malwarebytes, there are free alternatives, but I find the free options significantly less secure and reliable. Nearly all the infected computers I worked on in the industry had free versions and the removal of the risk and preventing data loss always cost more than purchasing the paid anti-virus and malware software combined. ​ Although Broadband routers have firewalls installed, these are not reliable so do not rely on this alone to protect your computers. ​ KEEP the antivirus and malware software updated on a regular basis, as new threats come onto the web daily.

Paint La pittura di un kit modello è un aspetto fondamentale della costruzione di modelli e il tipo di vernice utilizzata è una preferenza personale. Allora, che vernice usi? Per me, le build di Model kit non sono solo mettere insieme il modello. Uso principalmente una selezione di aerografi, ma utilizzo tecniche di spazzolatura a mano per dettagli fini e agenti atmosferici. Ci sono vantaggi e svantaggi nella scelta di un tipo di vernice. Uso vernici acriliche , laccate , a base di olio e occasionalmente a smalto . I produttori più comuni di vernici che utilizzo sono: Vallejo - Acrylicosvallejo.com/en/ AK Interactive - ak-interactive.com MIG AMMO - www.migjimenez.com/en/ MSP (Master Series Paint) - www.reapermini.com/paints Games Workshop - games-workshop.com/en-EU/Home Golden - goldenpaints.com Warcolours - warcolours.com Modelli di missione - missionmodelsus.com MRP (MrPaint) (vernice laccata) - mrpaint.sk Lifecolor - military-modelling.com/c-3358365/lifecolor-paint-sets/ Abteilung (pittura acrilica e ad olio) - abteilung502.com Colour Standards provide a reference point industry can trust when measuring colour in military colouring and camouflage, national and company transport, paint manufacturers, and hobby enthusiasts, particularly those who build models of a certain period, armies, transport, or wars. Colour standards can be applied to numerous purposes, and range from ultraviolet, visible, to infrared, wavelength ranges of 300 - 800nm. ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Besides colour, the next obvious feature of a colour standard is its surface property, these range from high gloss, mid-gloss to matte. One can often see if the light is reflected or diffused on a matte surface. ​ The reflected light is specular light, this leaves the surface at an equal and opposite angle to that of the incident light. ​ However, the colour of many materials is not specular light, so to measure the colour of a standard, one needs to ignore the specular light and concentrate on the diffuse light measurement to fathom the colour of the standard. ​ Even today, not all paint is equal, paint is produced by a multitude of manufacturers in numerous countries colour, quality and various paint colour standards are used. ​ Many manufacturers provide colour conversion charts and in most cases these are fine. But if like me, you may use many paint manufacturers finding the right paint colour conversion can be time-consuming. So, I started to design a database to store the colours I mostly use. When a new colour materialises, I add it to the database. ​ I also add the standard codes used by some areas to define paint colours into the database: This manufacturer paint conversion document is not yet complete, but it is constantly being updated:. ​ Click on the button to download the database: The standard codes used by some areas to define paint colours into the database: ​ RAL – European colour matching standard that defines paint colours, plastics, and coatings colours. RAL is administrated by the RAL Deutsches Institut für Gütesicherung und Kennzeichnung, it is the abbreviation of ‘ R eichs- A usschuß für L ieferbedingungen und Gütesicherung’. Which means, ‘National Commission for Quality Assurance and Labelling’. ​ FS - F ederal S tandard is the colour description and communication system developed by the United States government in 1956. Its roots began in World War II when a problem was highlighted, that of providing exact colour specifications to military equipment subcontractors in different parts of the world became a matter of importance. But in 1991, Urban Fredriksson’s Colour Reference Charts were first published, which soon became the 'de facto standard * ’ for communicating colour data between historical camouflage colour researchers and modelling enthusiasts to determine the correct colours for model paints throughout the world. Known as 595a/595B, often abbreviated as ‘FED-STD-595B’ as they have no official names. ​ RLM - The State Ministry of Aviation ‘ R eichs L uftfahrt M inisterium’, defined the colours used by the Luftwaffe. They established a standard for colour shades, their production, and applications. There were directives, but other regulations, some of which had been established before the formation of the RLM itself in 1933, limited the number of colours available and fortified production from pigments obtainable within Germany. The paint was supplied by several companies and even though aircraft manufacturers could choose what commercial products to purchase, they had to adhere to specific uniform standards, characterised by the Farbtontafel and later by individual paint imperfections. Following is a list of RLM (Reichsluftfahrt Ministerium) paint designations used by the German Ministry of Aviation from 1933 through 1945. ANA - A rmy- N avy A eronautical Paint Colours were used by the US Federal Government from 1943 through to 1970 to standardize colours for aircraft manufactured by the American aircraft industry. But the ANA standard was abandoned in 1970 when the colour standards were transferred to the Federal Standard 595A. BS - B ritish S tandards for colours are the United Kingdom standard for colours, it is amalgamated under the Royal Charter ‘National Standards Body’. British Standards exist to guarantee the level of quality and consistency. BS 4800 is the standard range of colours for paints, created by the British Colour Council. and is used mainly in construction and interior decoration. A colour’s name may change, but its number is constant. In 1930 the ‘British Colour Council’ came into being, its core objective was organising a standard code for colours to maintain clarity. ​ *The term de facto standard is used in contrast with obligatory standards known as ‘de jure standards’, or to express a dominant voluntary standard when there are many standards accessible for the same use.

Motherboard A motherboard, system board, or colloquially, a mobo is a printed circuit board (PCB) found in computers and other expandable systems. ​ All motherboards have socket name that corresponds with the CPU that can be used, a few are: ​ AMD AM3+, AMD Ryzen™ and AMD FX Intel i7 series LGA 1156 socket H Intel i9 - LGA 2066 A Motherboard holds a few crucial components, such as, ​ Central Processing Unit or the CPU socket. Memory (RAM) slots. Contains important sub-systems . Many have embedded HD video facilities and 7:1 sound . Holds the BIOS (Basic Input Output System) installed. Provides connectors for peripherals, sockets, connections, and slots for: ​ Mouse Keyboard Speakers Network port USB ports Firewire port Hard drives Monitor Video cards Sound cards Network cards TV Tuner cards Motherboards provide several external connections, so users are able use the computer. It is PCB with expansion capability - the board is the ‘mother’ of most of the components attached. Different types of motherboard ports and their functions explained. ​ RJ-45 (Registered Jack 45) LAN port – The RJ-45 port allows connection to a Local Area Network (LAN) through a network hub using an RJ-45 cable. ​ Analog Audio P orts – allow connections like speakers, audio devices, and microphones. ​ USB (Universal Serial Bus) 2.0 or 3.0 Ports - are located on each motherboard and used for connecting mice, keyboards, printers/scanners, external hard drives, and tablets. ​ PS/2 Keyboard Port (purple) - used for a PS/2 keyboard. PS/2 mouse port (green) - used for a PS/2 mouse. ​ 1394a Port - used to connect firewire devices. FireWire has largely been displaced by USB. However, some professional audio hardware devices still use FireWire. ​ Optical S/PDIF - used for sound connections to home audio receivers or powered PC speakers with optical connections. ​ eSATA Port (External Serial Advanced Technology Attachment) - It is an external interface for SATA technologies and competes with FireWire 400 and USB 2.0 to provide fast data transfer speeds for external storage devices. ​ HDMI Port (High-Definition Multimedia Interface) - is a digital interface for transmitting audio and video data in a single cable. It is supported by most HDTVs and related components, like DVD and Blu-Ray players, cable boxes, and video game systems. ​ DVI Port (Digital Visual Interface) - is used to send digital information from a computer to a digital display, such as a flat-panel LCD monitor. There are several types: ​ DisplayPort (DP) - is a digital display interface developed by a conglomerate of PC and chip manufacturers. The interface is primarily used to connect a video source to a display device, a monitor, it can also carry audio , USB , and other forms of data. Initially, the DisplayPort was designed to replace VGA, FPD-Link, Digital Visual Interface (DVI), and the interface is backward compatible with HDMI and DVI, using adapters. ​ VGA (Video Graphics Array) Port - VGA is an older video format and it allows an analog signal as opposed to a digital signal (ones and zeroes). Using higher frequencies, it is possible to reach a relatively high range of video resolutions. However, video quality directly responds to cable quality, and particularly with higher resolutions. Because of this, the quality of a VGA image can fluctuate with different makes of cable. ​ ​ Bus Sub-Systems The motherboard is a circuit board that connects the CPU to the memory and all the other hardware. Buses are circuits on the motherboard that connect the CPU to other components. There are many buses on the motherboard, bus systems move instructions and data around the system. Bus speed is measured in megahertz (MHz), The faster the bus, the quicker data is communicated, therefore, the motherboards speed is defined by the bus speed. ​ Bus systems are limited by their width in bits and are usually 8, 16, or 32-bits wide. This indicates how many bits can be sent by the bus at any one time, so, a 32-bit bus can send 32 bits or a 16-bit can send 16 bits at once. ​ The bus that connects the CPU to the memory is called the front-side bus (FSB) or system bus. CPU cores share Level 2 and Level 3 cache across the front-side bus and will usually connect to Level 2 cache through the back-side bus (BSB), the back-side bus is faster than the FSB. ​ There are two types of Bus sub-systems: ​ Internal – Buses that connect to internal components. ​ External – Buses that connect to external components. ​ The FSB contains two types of bus: ​ Address bus - this sends information about where data needs to go by sending an address to the memory. The address bus only sends data in one direction - from the CPU to RAM. ​ Data bus - this sends data to the memory or receives data from the memory. Data can flow both ways along the data bus. ​ ​ A Bus Sub-system transfers data between computer components. Separate to point-to-point connections, a bus system can logically connect several peripherals over the same set of connections. ​ Every Bus defines its set of connectors to physically plug devices, cards, or cables together. Because of this, there are various kinds of slots used to connect internal and external devices. North Bridge : The northbridge typically handles communications among the CPU, in some cases RAM, and PCI Express (or AGP) video cards, and the southbridge. Northbridge is directly connected to AGP video, thus providing higher transfer rates. SouthBridge : The southbridge is one of the two chips in the core logic chipset on a personal computer (PC) motherboard, the other being the northbridge. The southbridge typically implements the slower capabilities of the motherboard in a northbridge/southbridge chipset computer architecture. A southbridge chipset handles all the computer's I/O functions, such as USB, audio, serial, the system BIOS, the ISA bus, the interrupt controller, and the IDE channels. PCI (Peripheral Component Interconnect) There are many kinds of internal buses, but there are only a few popular ones. Various motherboards have different kinds and a number of slots, so it is vital to know what kind and number of slots a motherboard has before purchasing a sound or video card and match the type of slot to the motherboard. ​ PCI (Peripheral Component Interconnect) was common in PCs several years ago, now PCIe (Peripheral Component Interconnect Express) has succeeded this type of bus. Usually, PCIe cards used were: ​ Network card or NIC card Sound card Modems Additional USB or Serial ports TV tuner card Additional SATA disk controllers Video card ​ PCIe (Peripheral Component Interconnect Express) PCIe was designed to replace the general-purpose PCI expansion bus and the aging AGP graphics card interface. PCIe is not a bus, but a point-to-point connection of serial links called lanes. Because PCIe cards have faster bandwidths than PCI cards they make an ideal option for high-end video cards. ​ AGP (Accelerated Graphics Port) AGP (Accelerated Graphics Port) is a high-speed point-to-point channel for attaching graphics cards to motherboards to help in the acceleration of 3D graphics. Connectors and Motherboard Pins Motherboards require connectors and Pins to work. Some power the motherboard, while others provide connections for: ​ SATA and IDE (old type connection) Hard drives SATA and IDE DVD/CD writers/players and IDE floppy drive (no longer used) USB, Firewire, Audio (analog and digital), connections for the front of the case, and DVD players Power for fans (including the CPU cooling fan) ATX 24 pin and ATX 6 12-volt motherboard power Front panel pins – computer cases have fitted leads for front USB, Firewire, audio, microphones and: Power Switch Speaker Reset Switch Power LED Chassis Intrusion Header Hard drive activity LED Message/Power Sleep LED ​ Front panel pins are a conundrum because case manufacturers have not decided on a standard. Some manufacturers use plain coloured wire, others dual coloured and they hardly ever identify with is positive or ground leads. If lucky they put an information sheet in the box, but the cheaper cases tend not to have these. ​ Luckily, some motherboard manufacturers are more accommodating. However, all manufacturers do indicate which lead is which by abbreviating on the connector, such as: ​ PWR – Power Switch SPK - Speaker RES - Reset Switch MSG - Message/Power/Sleep LED CH - Chassis Intrusion Header HD - Hard drive activity LED PWR LED ​ The pin assignments for the front panel header may differ by model. Refer to the motherboard user's manual for the actual pin assignments.

HTML HTML is not a programming language, denoting it does not have the ability to create dynamic functionality. As an alternative, it makes it possible to organize and format documents, comparably like Microsoft Word. HTML stands for Hypertext Markup Language and it permits users to create and structure sections, paragraphs, headings, links, and block-quotes for web pages and applications. ​ When working with HTML, simple code structures (tags and attributes) to mark up a website page are used. An example being the creation of a paragraph by placing the enclosed text within a starting and closing tags. ​ Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) is the standard Markup Language for documents designed to be displayed in web browsers and can be helped by technologies such as Cascading Style Sheets (CSS) and scripting languages such as JavaScript. ​ Web browsers receive HTML documents from a web server or from local storage then render the documents into multimedia web pages. An example is: < !DOCTYPE html > < html > < head > < title > Page Title < /title > < /head > < body > < h1 > Heading of website < /h1 > < p > First paragraph used in site < /p > < /body > < /html > So, what does it mean? < !DOCTYPE html > declaration defines this document as an HTML5 document. < html > element is the root part of an HTML page. < head > portion contains meta information about the HTML page. < title > section specifies a title for the HTML page - used to name the 'Title' of your page. < body > element defines the document's body and is a container for all the visible contents - this is where you put your headings, paragraphs, images, hyperlinks, tables, and lists. < h1 > part defines a large heading. < p > section defines a paragraph/s the text written on this page is written in this section between the <> . ​ <> is known as 'Tags', there is a 'Start Tag' and an 'End Tag', data is written between them and ​ If you can right-click a web page and click on 'View Source' to see how HTML aspects of that page. HTML tags are like keywords that define that how a web browser will format and display its content. Using tags web browsers can distinguish between HTML and its content. HTML tags contain three main parts: ​ Start (opening) tag. Content. End (finishing) tag. ​ When web browsers read HTML documents it reads them from top to bottom and left to right. HTML tags are used to create HTML documents and render their properties and each HTML tag has different properties depending on its function. ​ An HTML file must have some essential tags so that the web browser can differentiate between simple text and HTML text. You can use as many tags as you want as per your code requirement.