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C++ C++ is a general-purpose, object-oriented programming language That is extremely like ‘C’. C++ is so well-matched with C that it will undoubtedly compile over 99% of C programs without changing source code. However, C++ is better structured and a safer language than ‘C’ as it is an object-oriented programming-based language. It is more of an extension of the ‘C’ programming language or ‘C’ with Classes. ​ Object-oriented programming is a programming model based on the concept of ‘objects’, that can contain data and code: data in the form of fields, known as attributes or properties, and code in the form of procedures referred to as methods. ​ While Pascal was conceived to teach accurate programming techniques and C++ is a general-purpose language that has been expanded significantly over time. It has almost always been applied as a compiled language, and many companies provide C++ compilers, such as Microsoft, Intel, and the Free Software Foundation.

Raid 5 to 10 RAID 5, 6 and 10 RAID 5 is block-level striping with distributed parity that allocates parity with the data and needs all the HDDs but one to be present to operate. In this configuration, the array is not destroyed by a single drive failure. When an HDD fails any successive reads can be calculated from the distributed parity, so, the HDD failure is masked from the end-user. RAID 5 requires at least three disks and is often and is reliable a good system to use because if an HDD fails your data is safe on the other HDDs. ​ Also, if you replace the failed HDD with a new HDD it will automatically take over the function of the failed HDD. RAID 6 is block-level striping with double distributed parity that provides fault tolerance up to two failed HDDs. This makes larger RAID groups more practical, particularly for high-end systems. These days this is increasingly significant as large capacity HDDs prolong the time needed to recover from a single HDD failure. ​ Similar to RAID 5 , a single HDD failure results in reduced performance of the total array until the failed HDD has been replaced and the data has been rebuilt. RAID 10 , sometimes mentioned as RAID 1+0 mirroring and striping occurs. Data is written in stripes across primary disks that have been mirrored to the secondary disks. ​ This is the best RAID system, one I have used for a long time.

CMD - Command Promt Before Windows was created, the most usual operating system that ran on computers was DOS (Disk Operating System). ​ I can remember learning how to use DOS and still use it on a regular basis. ​ Over time, newer versions of Windows were developed, and DOS was finally phased out with Windows ME. However, even with Windows 7, 8, 10, and 11, the CMD (Command Line) in DOS (disk operating system) system still runs in the background, and a command line or command prompt window can still be opened. It has a similar appearance to DOS and can be a useful tool when diagnosing problems. ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ The command prompt/line is also used in Linux operating systems and many seasoned computer users use the command line as much as the graphical user interface. ​ Whether you are using MS Windows, macOS or Linux, there is a Shell, (Shell is a computer program that presents a command-line interface that allows you to control your computer using commands entered with a keyboard instead of controlling graphical user interfaces (GUIs) with a mouse/keyboard combination), Console window or the likes lurking in the background. Windows and Linux use different commands to access and use these Shells, so if you use both you will need to learn two types of command language. Using the Command Prompt or Dos Window ​ When people refer to the command prompt, they may refer to it in different ways. Some call it: ​ A Shell Console Window Command Prompt Cmd Prompt Terminal Command Line DOS ​ To find and open an MS-DOS prompt or Windows command line for the various Windows versions press the Window key and type CMD , this will highlight the Command Prompt , then click it to open the shell.

Capacitors Un condensatore o condensatore è un componente elettrico passivo a due terminali utilizzato per immagazzinare energia elettrostaticamente in un circuito elettrico. I condensatori variano ampiamente, ma contengono tutti almeno due conduttori elettrici (piastre) separati da un isolante. Quando una differenza di potenziale tra i conduttori (quando un condensatore è collegato a una batteria), un campo elettrico si sviluppa attraverso il dielettrico, causando la raccolta di una carica positiva su una piastra e una carica negativa sull'altra piastra. Se una batteria è stata collegata a un condensatore per un tempo sufficiente, nessuna corrente può fluire attraverso il condensatore. Tuttavia, se viene applicata una tensione di accelerazione o alternata (CA) ai conduttori del condensatore, può fluire una corrente di spostamento. Un condensatore ideale è caratterizzato da un unico valore costante per la sua capacità. La capacità è espressa come il rapporto tra la carica elettrica su ciascun conduttore e la differenza di potenziale (V = Tensione) tra di loro. Il SI (Sistema internazionale di unità SI è abbreviato dal Système internazionale francese (d'unités), la forma moderna del sistema metrico) Condensatore La capacità di un condensatore La capacità è l'aspetto elettrico di un condensatore e misura la capacità di un condensatore di immagazzinare una carica elettrica sulle sue piastre gemelle. L'unità di capacità è un Farad (F). La capacità è definita come quella che un condensatore ha la capacità di One Farad quando una carica di One Coulomb è immagazzinata sulle piastre da una tensione di un volt. La capacità (C) è costantemente positiva (+ ve) in valore, non avendo unità negative (-ve). Tuttavia, il Farad è un'unità di misura eccezionalmente grande da utilizzare da solo, quindi vengono generalmente utilizzati sub-multipli del Farad, come micro-farad, nano-farad o pico-farad. Unità standard di capacità Microfarad (μF) 1μF = 1 / 1.000.000 = 0,000001 = 10-6 F. Nanofarad (nF) 1nF = 1 / 1.000.000.000 = 0,000000001 = 10-9 F. Picofarad (pF) 1pF = 1 / 1.000.000.000.000 = 0.000000000001 = 10-12 F Utilizzando le informazioni sopra, è possibile applicare una semplice tabella per convertire pico-Farad (pF), nano-Farad (nF), micro-Farad (μF) e Farad (F) come indicato di seguito. I condensatori sono un componente cruciale nelle build del Model kit con illuminazione dinamica e modifiche del suono.

Networking and Internet It is a computer network is a group of computers or servers that use a set of common communication protocols over digital interconnections for the function of sharing resources located on or provided by the network nodes. The interconnections between nodes are formed from a broad spectrum of telecommunication network technologies, based on physically wired, optical, and wireless radio-frequency methods that may be arranged in a variety of network analysis situs. ​ Computer networks for the home and small business can be built using wired or wireless technology. In the past, a wired Ethernet has been the option is used in homes, but Wi-Fi wireless technology has improved greatly and is now commonplace. ​ Wired and wireless networks have advantages and disadvantages. They equally epitomise practical choices for home or other local area networks (LANs) and depend on the packages purchased by the user. ​ When possible, I prefer wired solutions as performance and security are better and more reliable. Wireless networks are convenient but can have performance and security issues. ​ Both have advantages and disadvantages. ​ Wireless networks allow devices to stay connected to the network but roam untethered to any wires. Access points amplify Wi-Fi signals, so a device can be far from a router but still be connected to the network. When connected to a Wi-Fi hotspot at a public place, café, hotel, airport lounge, the connection is with that business's wireless network. ​ Wired networks use cables to connect devices, such as desktop computers, laptops, or servers to access the Internet or additional network. A wired network has disadvantages when compared to a wireless network, the largest is that the device is tethered to a router. ​ Motherboards have at least one RJ-45 networking socket and some have integrated Wi-Fi adapters fitted. ​ A computer network is a collection of computers and/or hardware interconnected by communication channels that allow sharing of resources and information. ​ It is where a device, computer or server sends or receives data to or from another device, computer, or server in a remote location. When connected, the two devices are said to be networked. A network is a group is the sum of computers, tablets, phones, laptops, and servers that are connected. Networks are organised in a diverse group of physiognomies, such as, the method used to carry the data and communications protocols. ​ Communication protocols define the rules and data formats for swapping information in a computer network and provide the basis for network programming. Router A router is a networking device that forwards data several layer packets between computer networks, such as files, communications, and transmissions. Routers perform the traffic directing functions on the Internet. Data sent through the internet, like web pages or emails, data packets, a packet is normally forwarded from one router to router through the networks that make up the Internet until it reaches its destination node. ​ Data packets have several layers, or sections, one of which carries identifying information such as sender, data type, size, and most importantly, the destination Internet protocol (IP) address. The router reads this layer, prioritizes the data, and chooses the best route to use for each transmission.

Hard Drives (HDD) A hard disk drive (HDD) is a storage device used for storing and retrieving digital information (data) HDD retains their data even when powered off, unlike memory RAMs. ​ There are three types of hard drives: SATA , SSD, and NVMe . ​ In 2003, SATA (Serial Advanced Technology Attachment) was introduced as the default interface for most desktop and laptop hard drives and referred to as SATA hard drives, but they are rotary hard drives with spinning platters coated with a magnetic material, with a moving needle that writes data to consecutive sectors on each platter. ​ Most computer HDDs are fitted into an internal drive bay in the computer and connect to the motherboard using a SATA cable. ​ HDDs can also be used as external devices these are reasonable as backup drives reducing the risk of data loss if the HDD fails. ​ The two most common form factors for modern HDDs are 3.5-inch for desktop computers and 2.5-inch for laptops. ​ A single drive can range from 80 GB to 16 TB and are reliable drives if you need a lot of cheap storage and do not need extremely high reads or writes. Since data is physically written to a disk, deleted, and re-written numerous times, it can become fragmented, meaning that different sectors can be spread across different areas of the disk, thereby slowing down the drive. HDDs also are vulnerable to shock or sudden movement since there are moving parts in each drive, which makes them a poor choice for laptops. Pros: Low cost. High disk sizes. Cons: Not good for laptops. Requires regular de-fragmentation. SSD stands for Solid State Drive , SSDs do not have moving parts. Instead, the data is stored on non-volatile flash memory. So, there is no needle that must move to read or write data, and this makes them significantly faster than SATA drives. It is difficult to define exact speeds because it varies by manufacturer and form factor, but the lower-performing drives are comparable to SATA drives. ​ The disadvantage is that they are significantly more expensive and do not come in as many sizes. SSD drives generally range from about 80GB to 2 TB. Since there are no moving parts, these drives are also more durable, and there are form factors built specifically for laptops, making them ideal for storage on the go. But they are still prone to failure. Pros: Fast More durable, especially for laptops Cons: More expensive than SATA drives Lower disk sizes Non-Volatile Memory Express, or NVMe Released in 2013, is a type of SSD that is attached to a motherboard fitted with a PCI Express (PCIe) slot. Incredibly fast, PCIe slots were originally designed for graphics cards. Speeds on NVMe drives can reach an interface rate of 32 Gb/s with a throughput of 3.9 GB/s, useful if gaming or high-resolution video editing. ​ Most older BIOS do not support booting from NVMe, so installing an Operating System on an NVMe, a motherboard upgrade may be required. Having worked for a major IT company and saw the distress on customers' faces when their HDDs failed and they lost their data, I always recommend the Cloud Storage option for important data or photographs. Data recovery on failed drives is awfully expensive and not guaranteed. ​ ​ ​ Protect your data, if you scrap an old computer DO NOT throw away your HDDs as they can be connected to your new computer using a USB adapter. Also, the important data stored on them can be retrieved by a second or third party, meaning they could have access to ALL your personal information, including passwords and bank details, so BEWARE! Dealing with HDD Error messages and issues

HDD Error Management Hard Drive Error Management ​ A healthy primary becoming a RAW partition can be caused by several reasons, such as: ​ Virus infection Format failure Accidental OS shutdown Power outages ​ How to do RAW partition fix easily in Windows 7/8/10? There are a few ways you could choose from. ​ DISCLAIMER: The examples that I have illustrated are ones I employ to deal with hard drive problems. They might be dangerous to use for some systems. These procedures may also be ineffective. If you try them, you may cause damage or irreparable data loss. Because of this take great care. Therefore, I take no responsibility for anything you do based on my examples or the information that I have provided. ​ How to Fix: Internal or External HDDs that became RAW. A commonplace and bewildering problem with computers is the unexpected and mysterious disappearance of a hard drive (HHD) that has been working properly. It can be a horrendous experience to suddenly find that your data might be gone forevermore. I still get the stomach tightening when a message box reports that your HDD has given up the ghost. ​ It is easy to say, ‘ Don’t panic ’, but most inexperienced people will have that gut-wrenching moment when the hard drive is no longer usable. ​ If approached sensibly and carefully, the situation can usually be resolved, and the data saved. Below we will look at a few of the causes, fixes, and preventative measures for occurrences involving HDDs used with Windows XP and Windows Vista/7/8, Yes, I know they are old systems, but I know of a major computer store that still uses XP because of the cost and management implications of upgrading to MS Windows 10. ​ Error Messages Usual error messages associated with the inability to access an HDD. When attempting to access the drive in Windows you may see a message asking you to format the drive - ‘You need to format the disk in drive before you can use it, Do you want to format it?’ ​ DO NOT FORMAT THE DRIVE Another error that you may see when trying to access the drive in Windows from a program or the command line is - ‘ This volume does not contain a recognised file system. Please make sure that all required file system drivers are loaded, and that the volume is not corrupted. ’ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Attempting to run chkdsk with a RAW HDD to repair the problem will give the error – ‘chkdsk cannot be run on the drive’ The type of the file system is RAW. CHKDSK is not available for RAW drives.’ Before going on, you need to be aware of the risks involved. ​ If the problem with the drive is not a logical error but is a symptom of physical damage, the more you try to use or repair it, the worse the damage may become. ​ The drive should not be making strange clicking or beeping noises. If this occurs it indicates physical damage. ​ In these situations, I disconnect the drive from my windows machine and plug it into a purely Linux machine to repair or recover the data. Even so, this can make the situation worse. ​ If you wish to continue your own there are a couple of important rules to remember. If you do not have a dual boot system with Linux perhaps a friend does. ​ Do Not try to write anything to the raw DRIVE apart from trying to repair the Master Boot Record (MBR) and Boot Sector. Any other data transfer, deleting partitions, or attempting to format the drive can overwrite data on the drive. ​ If you have important data or photographs on the drive do not mess about it, take/send it to a professional for data retrieval. ​ Computer problems are erratic and not set in stone. So, try other ideas, search the web. Not every option will work so it is important to think laterally. ​ If the drive does not hold important data you can try to format it using the command line - I have had several successes, but also many failures. ​ If you do not need any of the data - use the 'Disk Clean' method below Open the Disk Management window and click on Disk Management in the left pane and make note of the disk in the middle pane of the disk that you want to clean or clean all (Fig: Be sure that you have the correct disk, check the number, mine is drive ‘T’ No. 4. You would not want to wipe clean the wrong disk. Press the Windows + C keys to open the search dialog, type command on the left side of your screen right-click the ‘ Command Prompt ’ tab and choose ‘ Run as Administrator ’ at the bottom of the page, and click the link. Once the Shell opens (Fig: 1) a line will display: C:\WINDOWS\system32\ Fig: 1 Type ‘ diskpart ’ (Fig: 2) and press ‘ Enter ’ Fig: 2 Beside DISKPART> type ‘ list disk ’ and press ‘ Enter ’ ​ You will see in (Fig: 3) that there are 6 disks listed 0 to 5, remember I am using disk 4. (Double, no triple check you have the correct disk before continuing) Fig: 3 Now the prompt (Fig: 4) displays ‘ Disk 4 is now the selected disk ’ ​ Beside DISKPART > type ‘ list disk ’ and press ‘ Enter ’ You will see in (Fig: 4) that I have 6 disks listed 0 to 5, remember I am using disk 4. (Double, no triple check you have the correct disk before continuing) ​ Beside DISKPART > type ‘clean’ and then press ‘ Enter ’ Fig: 4 Disk 4 will now be cleaned, once complete it will state ‘ DiskPart succeeded in cleaning the disk ’ (Fig: 5). Fig: 5 For a full clean, just type ‘ clean all ’ instead of ‘ clean ’ and press ‘ Enter ’ as before – a clean all will take many hours if you are using it on a large drive. ​ Go back to the Disk Management screen and format the drive, normally it will format fine using efat system, but I have had problems with some hard drives reverting back to RAW when trying to format them in NTSF .

Recipes Bread - there is nothing like home-baked bread. The benefits of home baking are renowned throughout the world, it is healthier, and you have control over what ingredients go into each batch. If you purchase bread from the store, there will be a long ingredient list, like: Potassium bromate. Partially hydrogenated oil: Azodicarbonamide. Store bread can also often have preservatives to extend its shelf life. Baking your own can make your bread healthier using nutritious ingredients, like: ​ Whole wheat. Honey. Wild Rice Bread. Sunflower Seeds. Tomatoes. Cheese. Herbs. Fruit. Sandwich Bread Loaf

Model Building Ho costruito kit di modelli per molti anni e ho sentito che spesso mancano nella loro qualità e aspetto. Questo sito illustra alcuni dei metodi che utilizzo per superare queste carenze. Progetto e realizzo anche circuiti elettronici per migliorare alcuni model kit e diorami. Mi piace progettare e costruire modelli di kit con illuminazione dinamica, modifiche del suono e diorami possibili Aggiungerò un canale video per illustrare come lavoro, i circuiti che progetto e le recensioni dei prodotti. Negli anni ho utilizzato molti tipi di vernice, principalmente: acrilici a base d'acqua, pittura a smalto a base di olio, vernice e solvente. Ciascuno presenta vantaggi e svantaggi .

Airbrushing If you are committed airbrushing will give you more options. ​ Airbrush - there are many airbrush variants and many manufacturers, it is often personal preference. Double or dual-action airbrushes are considered more flexible than single-action airbrushes because they allow users to modify paint volume accordingly. This is more beneficial when building scale models. However, this does not imply that the single-action brush cannot be used for painting models. Some users prefer single action because they are easy to use and handle. There are a number of types available: Single action - Press down the trigger controls airflow, basically, it is an on-off device, so do not try to control the airflow or pressure. That is done using the regulator on the compressor. Twisting the knob at the rear of the airbrush counter clockwise starts and increases paint flow until the knob is twisted completely out. ​Advantages: The separate air and paint controls make single-action airbrushes easier to use than double-action airbrushes. Allowing users to concentrate on moving their hand instead of concentrating on how far back the finger moves. Provides repeatable actions as everything is pre-set. Keeping air pressure and paint flow steady. Double action - Press down on the trigger for air release - pressing down further release more air. Pull back on the trigger for paint release - pulling back further will discharge more paint. Dual-action, sometimes referred to as double-action, allows modellers and artists greater control. Dual-action airbrushes provide the user to produce incredibly fine lines and provide greater control of fading and blending for more detailed work. Good dual-action airbrushes are more expensive than single-action airbrushes because of the greater accuracy. Dual-action airbrushes also have a steeper learning curve than single-action airbrushes, so can take longer to develop full control and a disciplined technique. Trigger or Pistol grip style airbrushes are one of the most useful types of airbrushes available, but they are not so popular amongst the average modeller. There are plenty of trigger or pistol grip airbrushes on the market today, like the: Grex TS. Iwata - TRN1, TRN2, Neo TRN, HP-TR1, HP-TR2, HP-TH, HP-TH2. Sparmax – GP-35, GP-50, GP-70 and GP850. Harder & Steenbeck – Colani. Mr Procon Boy - PS-275, PS-290. Zoukei - Mura PM-C. PointZero. Despite the number of Trigger or Pistol grip style airbrushes available the interest in this specific style of airbrush is minimal. Some manufacturers denote the ‘T/TR’ as ‘Trigger’ other ‘P/PS’ as ‘Pistol’. ​ The benefit of these types of airbrush is being a dual-action airbrush, it works somewhat like a single-action one. Pulling the trigger automatically mixes the air and paint, the more you pull the trigger the richer your mix becomes. Advantages Variations in finger or hand motions benefit people who do not have the dexterity to use a normal trigger. The trigger mechanism stays cleaner for a longer period. Tighter tolerances are obtainable. Disadvantage Trigger mechanism is more problematic to maintain. Sparmax GP-50 Grex Tritium TG Iwata TR1 ​ Gravity-feed - Gravity-feed airbrushes have a paint cup at the top of the airbrush where the paint is poured. With the aid of a compressor, gravity pulls small amounts of paint into the mixing chamber where atomization occurs. ​ Side-feed - Side feed airbrushes are in-between, with the aid of a compressor, they can use a side gravity cup or side siphon-feed bottle. Most side-feed airbrush sets include a cup and bottles. ​ Siphon-fed - Siphon-fed airbrushes feature a bottle or cup connected to the bottom of the airbrush with a tube running through. With the aid of a compressor, the air is drawn into the top of the tube causing the paint to be ‘siphoned’ into the mixing chamber where atomization occurs. I have separate airbrushes for different tasks I do not like mixing airbrushes with different types of paint, primers, or varnishes and each of my airbrushes is labelled for a specific task. Examining the list below, yes, I have a lot of airbrushes, but these were purchased over many tears to see if one airbrush is better than the other, like many of my pieces of equipment. And, yes, there is a great disparity between airbrush manufacturers and models of airbrushes. Often it is personal preference what airbrush you use, an airbrush recommended by one person may not be suitable for you. Airbrush parts vary greatly in quality. I have two cheap-no-name airbrushes that I have been using for many years that provide extremely good results and three expensive ones that I do not like. I have found that the two most important features when considering an airbrush are the quality of the tip and the needle. I have found that many expensive airbrushes have poor quality needles and when examining a tip under a microscope have found that the quality is not as good as one might expect. Airbrush tips also vary greatly and I have had two tips from €250 airbrushes with damaged tips and a number high end needles not Unlike the expensive airbrushes where replacement parts are easily accessible, cheap airbrushes replacement parts are almost non-existent, so over the years I have learned to interchange parts and modify the cheap models with great results. All my airbrushes are thoroughly cleaned and lubricated after use; I do not leave dirty airbrushes on my workbench. If you spend money buying a good product, it should be looked after. ​ I use - ​ Harder & Steenbeck 2 x infinity CRplus – one with a 0.15 mm needle, and the second with a 0.2 mm needle used for fine detail work, used for acrylic paint. 1 x Evolution ALplus with 0.2 mm needle used for fine detail work, used with enamels and lacquer paint. 3 x Evolution CRplus with 0.15 mm, 0.2 mm, and 0.4 mm needles used with enamels and lacquer paint. 2 x Evolution Solo with 0.2 mm, and 0.4 mm needles, used for acrylic paint. ​ Sparmax GP-50 – 1 x with 0.3- and 0.4-mm needles, used for acrylic paint. ​ Badger - 2 x Sotar 20/20 Fine 0.21 mm needle, used for acrylic paint. 1 x Patriot 105 0.33 mm needle used for acrylic paint. 1 x Patriot Extreme 105 0.33 mm needle used for acrylic paint. 2 x Renegade Velocity with a 0.21 mm needle used with enamels and lacquer paint. 1 x Renegade Rage with a 0.33 mm needle used with enamels and lacquer paint. ​ Iwata - 2 x Hi-Line HP-BH 0.3 mm needle one used with acrylic paint, second used with enamels and lacquer paint. 1 x Custom Micron CM-B with 0.4-mm needle used with acrylic paint. 5 x Revolution Neo with various needle sizes used with acrylic paint, enamels, lacquer paint, primers, and vanishes. 1 x Neo TR1 with 0.3 mm - 0.4-mm needles used enamels and lacquer paint. 1 X Neo TR2 with 0.3 mm - 0.4-mm needles used with acrylic paint. ​ MIG Ammo - Aircobra with 0.3 mm needle used with acrylic paint. ​ Grex TS - 0.2 mm, and 0.4 mm needles used with acrylic paint. ​ Mr. Procon Boy PS-290 - with 0.5 mm needle used with acrylic paint. ​ Zoukei - Mura PM-C with 0.3 mm needle used with acrylic paint. ​ PointZero – with 0.35 mm needle used with acrylic paint. ​ 8 x Cheap, no name - airbrushes used mainly for primers and varnishes. I do not have or have never used either of - ​ ​ ​ Paasche ​ AK Interactive Harder & Steenbeck iwata TR2 Harder & Steenbeck Airbrush Nozzle Wagner Portable Paint Booth Portable Spray Booth Spraybooth - Airbrush spray booths help remove unpleasant odours and noxious fumes while airbrushing your model kits/parts. They have large fans with filters and long flexible hose pipes to help suck harmful paint particles and fumes from the booth and filter them out of your house through the window or extraction system. But I still advise wearing a respirator mask for best safety. They also protect pets or people close to the spray environment. Airbrush spray booths can also protect items kept near the spray area, reducing over-sprayed. ​ Air compressor - a compressor specifically designed for model makers or artists is vital as the gauges are marked for the ease of lower pressures. Also, purchasing a compressor with a larger air tank will help reduce excessive noise. There is a colossal amount of no-name compressors available, but some of the best-named compressors come from: ​ ​ ​ Badger Iwata Sparmax ​ I use a Sparmax TC-620X Compressor with a 2.5 L tank that is connected to a Sparmax 5 L tank with regular and water traps. And have an older Badger Aspire Pro TC910 compressor as a backup. ​ I have used cheap unbranded compressors, with and without air tanks and apart from the noise, they work well. But I would not recommend a compressor without an air tank as the air pressure fluctuations vary greatly. ​ Cleaning equipment - whether you opt for a named or no-name airbrush, cleaning, and maintenance of airbrushes on a regular basis is a priority to ensure reliability. ​ I clean my airbrush thoroughly after each spraying session, but only deep clean my airbrush when weekly. Laqauers and varnish is a different matter, I always deep clean after use because lacquer and varnish tend to stick everything together if not removed entirely. ​ I use Dental absorbent paper points (the same dentists use to suck out moisture when doing a tooth root canal) to clean out the nozzles, these come in various sizes and fit through the smallest nozzle nicely. Each dental stick is colour coded according to size. White the smallest and black the largest in this pack. ​ When deep cleaning I place my airbrushes in a heated ultrasonic cleaner for 10 minutes, this helps dislodge any persistent residual. I do not use chemicals in the ultrasonic cleaner to prevent damage to the 'O' rings and springs. Sparmax TC-620X Compressor Cheap No Name Compressor Airbrushes needles come in several sizes and qualities: ​ ​ Why have so many, and what do they do? Airbrushes are sophisticated devices used for the application of mediums onto a surface. The main element of paint atomization is an airbrush needle. An airbrush needle is responsible for the mixing of paint with air and forming a spray pattern. Because of their sharp tips, needles are the most fragile parts of airbrushes. They can be easily damaged when knocked or dropped. At best, the needle will bend, and I have lost count of how many airbrush needles I have damaged, and often you may not notice the bend in the needle until it affects the spraying results. How to choose airbrush needles ​ There are a vast variety and quality of airbrush needles from many manufacturers. And each offers a vast number of needle sizes for all types of airbrush models. ​ The main factor influencing needle choice is what is it intended to be used for, the type of airbrush you are using, and the size of the surface being airbrushed. ​ So, changing an airbrush needle will determine the amount of paint or varnish sprayed onto a model. Or will it? There are other factors to consider. The nozzle, also known as the tip, and the needle size of the airbrush will determine the amount of paint that can be sprayed through it. Most airbrushes come with one nozzle and needle already fitted. ​ When you change an airbrush needle size, the nozzle and often the needle cap will need to be changed to allow the correct working of the spray amount and pattern. Also, forcing a large needle into a smaller nozzle can damage it. Another factor is the type of paint being used. Although the likes of Vallejo, AK Interactive, MIG Ammo, Games workshop, etc provide paint ready to be airbrushed straight out of the bottle, I have found that not all paint is equal, it varies between manufacturer and even by the same manufacturer in the pigments of different colours. Many people advise, ‘thin your paint, primer or varnish’ others suggest ‘don’t bother'. Personally, I have found you can not equate a ‘do’ or do not’ paint thinning as it depends on the colour pigment or type of paint being used. ​ And if you decide to thin, buy how much? Over-thinning can breakdown the pigments, while not or under thinning may increase the incidence of tip drying or block. ​ How much to thin? Again, there is a wide consensus, and I have heard: ​ Consistency of ‘single cream’ (found this method too thick) Flows like ‘ milk’ (I find this difficult to visualize) 1:1 Ratio (Does not work for thicker pigment paints) So that it runs down the airbrush cup easily without the pigments breaking up (my method, I can easily see how the paint reacts in the airbrush cup). Airbrush Parts Airbrush and spraying troubleshooting Needle Caps help protect the tip of the needle from being damaged. There are a few designs, some enclosed, and others are partly open to ease needle tip cleaning when in use. Most experienced and professional users remove the needle cap entirely to make needle cleaning easier and to get better views while spraying.

Paint La pittura di un kit modello è un aspetto fondamentale della costruzione di modelli e il tipo di vernice utilizzata è una preferenza personale. Allora, che vernice usi? Per me, le build di Model kit non sono solo mettere insieme il modello. Uso principalmente una selezione di aerografi, ma utilizzo tecniche di spazzolatura a mano per dettagli fini e agenti atmosferici. Ci sono vantaggi e svantaggi nella scelta di un tipo di vernice. Uso vernici acriliche , laccate , a base di olio e occasionalmente a smalto . I produttori più comuni di vernici che utilizzo sono: Vallejo - Acrylicosvallejo.com/en/ AK Interactive - ak-interactive.com MIG AMMO - www.migjimenez.com/en/ MSP (Master Series Paint) - www.reapermini.com/paints Games Workshop - games-workshop.com/en-EU/Home Golden - goldenpaints.com Warcolours - warcolours.com Modelli di missione - missionmodelsus.com MRP (MrPaint) (vernice laccata) - mrpaint.sk Lifecolor - military-modelling.com/c-3358365/lifecolor-paint-sets/ Abteilung (pittura acrilica e ad olio) - abteilung502.com Colour Standards provide a reference point industry can trust when measuring colour in military colouring and camouflage, national and company transport, paint manufacturers, and hobby enthusiasts, particularly those who build models of a certain period, armies, transport, or wars. Colour standards can be applied to numerous purposes, and range from ultraviolet, visible, to infrared, wavelength ranges of 300 - 800nm. ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Besides colour, the next obvious feature of a colour standard is its surface property, these range from high gloss, mid-gloss to matte. One can often see if the light is reflected or diffused on a matte surface. ​ The reflected light is specular light, this leaves the surface at an equal and opposite angle to that of the incident light. ​ However, the colour of many materials is not specular light, so to measure the colour of a standard, one needs to ignore the specular light and concentrate on the diffuse light measurement to fathom the colour of the standard. ​ Even today, not all paint is equal, paint is produced by a multitude of manufacturers in numerous countries colour, quality and various paint colour standards are used. ​ Many manufacturers provide colour conversion charts and in most cases these are fine. But if like me, you may use many paint manufacturers finding the right paint colour conversion can be time-consuming. So, I started to design a database to store the colours I mostly use. When a new colour materialises, I add it to the database. ​ I also add the standard codes used by some areas to define paint colours into the database: This manufacturer paint conversion document is not yet complete, but it is constantly being updated:. ​ Click on the button to download the database: The standard codes used by some areas to define paint colours into the database: ​ RAL – European colour matching standard that defines paint colours, plastics, and coatings colours. RAL is administrated by the RAL Deutsches Institut für Gütesicherung und Kennzeichnung, it is the abbreviation of ‘ R eichs- A usschuß für L ieferbedingungen und Gütesicherung’. Which means, ‘National Commission for Quality Assurance and Labelling’. ​ FS - F ederal S tandard is the colour description and communication system developed by the United States government in 1956. Its roots began in World War II when a problem was highlighted, that of providing exact colour specifications to military equipment subcontractors in different parts of the world became a matter of importance. But in 1991, Urban Fredriksson’s Colour Reference Charts were first published, which soon became the 'de facto standard * ’ for communicating colour data between historical camouflage colour researchers and modelling enthusiasts to determine the correct colours for model paints throughout the world. Known as 595a/595B, often abbreviated as ‘FED-STD-595B’ as they have no official names. ​ RLM - The State Ministry of Aviation ‘ R eichs L uftfahrt M inisterium’, defined the colours used by the Luftwaffe. They established a standard for colour shades, their production, and applications. There were directives, but other regulations, some of which had been established before the formation of the RLM itself in 1933, limited the number of colours available and fortified production from pigments obtainable within Germany. The paint was supplied by several companies and even though aircraft manufacturers could choose what commercial products to purchase, they had to adhere to specific uniform standards, characterised by the Farbtontafel and later by individual paint imperfections. Following is a list of RLM (Reichsluftfahrt Ministerium) paint designations used by the German Ministry of Aviation from 1933 through 1945. ANA - A rmy- N avy A eronautical Paint Colours were used by the US Federal Government from 1943 through to 1970 to standardize colours for aircraft manufactured by the American aircraft industry. But the ANA standard was abandoned in 1970 when the colour standards were transferred to the Federal Standard 595A. BS - B ritish S tandards for colours are the United Kingdom standard for colours, it is amalgamated under the Royal Charter ‘National Standards Body’. British Standards exist to guarantee the level of quality and consistency. BS 4800 is the standard range of colours for paints, created by the British Colour Council. and is used mainly in construction and interior decoration. A colour’s name may change, but its number is constant. In 1930 the ‘British Colour Council’ came into being, its core objective was organising a standard code for colours to maintain clarity. ​ *The term de facto standard is used in contrast with obligatory standards known as ‘de jure standards’, or to express a dominant voluntary standard when there are many standards accessible for the same use.

Motherboard A motherboard, system board, or colloquially, a mobo is a printed circuit board (PCB) found in computers and other expandable systems. ​ All motherboards have socket name that corresponds with the CPU that can be used, a few are: ​ AMD AM3+, AMD Ryzen™ and AMD FX Intel i7 series LGA 1156 socket H Intel i9 - LGA 2066 A Motherboard holds a few crucial components, such as, ​ Central Processing Unit or the CPU socket. Memory (RAM) slots. Contains important sub-systems . Many have embedded HD video facilities and 7:1 sound . Holds the BIOS (Basic Input Output System) installed. Provides connectors for peripherals, sockets, connections, and slots for: ​ Mouse Keyboard Speakers Network port USB ports Firewire port Hard drives Monitor Video cards Sound cards Network cards TV Tuner cards Motherboards provide several external connections, so users are able use the computer. It is PCB with expansion capability - the board is the ‘mother’ of most of the components attached. Different types of motherboard ports and their functions explained. ​ RJ-45 (Registered Jack 45) LAN port – The RJ-45 port allows connection to a Local Area Network (LAN) through a network hub using an RJ-45 cable. ​ Analog Audio P orts – allow connections like speakers, audio devices, and microphones. ​ USB (Universal Serial Bus) 2.0 or 3.0 Ports - are located on each motherboard and used for connecting mice, keyboards, printers/scanners, external hard drives, and tablets. ​ PS/2 Keyboard Port (purple) - used for a PS/2 keyboard. PS/2 mouse port (green) - used for a PS/2 mouse. ​ 1394a Port - used to connect firewire devices. FireWire has largely been displaced by USB. However, some professional audio hardware devices still use FireWire. ​ Optical S/PDIF - used for sound connections to home audio receivers or powered PC speakers with optical connections. ​ eSATA Port (External Serial Advanced Technology Attachment) - It is an external interface for SATA technologies and competes with FireWire 400 and USB 2.0 to provide fast data transfer speeds for external storage devices. ​ HDMI Port (High-Definition Multimedia Interface) - is a digital interface for transmitting audio and video data in a single cable. It is supported by most HDTVs and related components, like DVD and Blu-Ray players, cable boxes, and video game systems. ​ DVI Port (Digital Visual Interface) - is used to send digital information from a computer to a digital display, such as a flat-panel LCD monitor. There are several types: ​ DisplayPort (DP) - is a digital display interface developed by a conglomerate of PC and chip manufacturers. The interface is primarily used to connect a video source to a display device, a monitor, it can also carry audio , USB , and other forms of data. Initially, the DisplayPort was designed to replace VGA, FPD-Link, Digital Visual Interface (DVI), and the interface is backward compatible with HDMI and DVI, using adapters. ​ VGA (Video Graphics Array) Port - VGA is an older video format and it allows an analog signal as opposed to a digital signal (ones and zeroes). Using higher frequencies, it is possible to reach a relatively high range of video resolutions. However, video quality directly responds to cable quality, and particularly with higher resolutions. Because of this, the quality of a VGA image can fluctuate with different makes of cable. ​ ​ Bus Sub-Systems The motherboard is a circuit board that connects the CPU to the memory and all the other hardware. Buses are circuits on the motherboard that connect the CPU to other components. There are many buses on the motherboard, bus systems move instructions and data around the system. Bus speed is measured in megahertz (MHz), The faster the bus, the quicker data is communicated, therefore, the motherboards speed is defined by the bus speed. ​ Bus systems are limited by their width in bits and are usually 8, 16, or 32-bits wide. This indicates how many bits can be sent by the bus at any one time, so, a 32-bit bus can send 32 bits or a 16-bit can send 16 bits at once. ​ The bus that connects the CPU to the memory is called the front-side bus (FSB) or system bus. CPU cores share Level 2 and Level 3 cache across the front-side bus and will usually connect to Level 2 cache through the back-side bus (BSB), the back-side bus is faster than the FSB. ​ There are two types of Bus sub-systems: ​ Internal – Buses that connect to internal components. ​ External – Buses that connect to external components. ​ The FSB contains two types of bus: ​ Address bus - this sends information about where data needs to go by sending an address to the memory. The address bus only sends data in one direction - from the CPU to RAM. ​ Data bus - this sends data to the memory or receives data from the memory. Data can flow both ways along the data bus. ​ ​ A Bus Sub-system transfers data between computer components. Separate to point-to-point connections, a bus system can logically connect several peripherals over the same set of connections. ​ Every Bus defines its set of connectors to physically plug devices, cards, or cables together. Because of this, there are various kinds of slots used to connect internal and external devices. North Bridge : The northbridge typically handles communications among the CPU, in some cases RAM, and PCI Express (or AGP) video cards, and the southbridge. Northbridge is directly connected to AGP video, thus providing higher transfer rates. SouthBridge : The southbridge is one of the two chips in the core logic chipset on a personal computer (PC) motherboard, the other being the northbridge. The southbridge typically implements the slower capabilities of the motherboard in a northbridge/southbridge chipset computer architecture. A southbridge chipset handles all the computer's I/O functions, such as USB, audio, serial, the system BIOS, the ISA bus, the interrupt controller, and the IDE channels. PCI (Peripheral Component Interconnect) There are many kinds of internal buses, but there are only a few popular ones. Various motherboards have different kinds and a number of slots, so it is vital to know what kind and number of slots a motherboard has before purchasing a sound or video card and match the type of slot to the motherboard. ​ PCI (Peripheral Component Interconnect) was common in PCs several years ago, now PCIe (Peripheral Component Interconnect Express) has succeeded this type of bus. Usually, PCIe cards used were: ​ Network card or NIC card Sound card Modems Additional USB or Serial ports TV tuner card Additional SATA disk controllers Video card ​ PCIe (Peripheral Component Interconnect Express) PCIe was designed to replace the general-purpose PCI expansion bus and the aging AGP graphics card interface. PCIe is not a bus, but a point-to-point connection of serial links called lanes. Because PCIe cards have faster bandwidths than PCI cards they make an ideal option for high-end video cards. ​ AGP (Accelerated Graphics Port) AGP (Accelerated Graphics Port) is a high-speed point-to-point channel for attaching graphics cards to motherboards to help in the acceleration of 3D graphics. Connectors and Motherboard Pins Motherboards require connectors and Pins to work. Some power the motherboard, while others provide connections for: ​ SATA and IDE (old type connection) Hard drives SATA and IDE DVD/CD writers/players and IDE floppy drive (no longer used) USB, Firewire, Audio (analog and digital), connections for the front of the case, and DVD players Power for fans (including the CPU cooling fan) ATX 24 pin and ATX 6 12-volt motherboard power Front panel pins – computer cases have fitted leads for front USB, Firewire, audio, microphones and: Power Switch Speaker Reset Switch Power LED Chassis Intrusion Header Hard drive activity LED Message/Power Sleep LED ​ Front panel pins are a conundrum because case manufacturers have not decided on a standard. Some manufacturers use plain coloured wire, others dual coloured and they hardly ever identify with is positive or ground leads. If lucky they put an information sheet in the box, but the cheaper cases tend not to have these. ​ Luckily, some motherboard manufacturers are more accommodating. However, all manufacturers do indicate which lead is which by abbreviating on the connector, such as: ​ PWR – Power Switch SPK - Speaker RES - Reset Switch MSG - Message/Power/Sleep LED CH - Chassis Intrusion Header HD - Hard drive activity LED PWR LED ​ The pin assignments for the front panel header may differ by model. Refer to the motherboard user's manual for the actual pin assignments.